The Irish Puritans

James Ussher and the Reformation of the Church

Book Details

Discerning Reader Editorial Review

Reviewed 07/24/2009 by Ian Clary.

Recommended. A dual history of the Irish Puritan movement and its chief embodiment, Archbishop James Ussher.

James Ussher (1581-1656) was one of the most influential Reformed theologians of the seventeenth century. In spite of this, he appears only faintly on the horizon of the contemporary resurgence of Reformed theology. However, the man who stands behind the Westminster Confession of Faith deserves greater recognition for his role not only in the reformation in Ireland, but in England as well. With the 2003 publication of Crawford Gribben’s The Irish Puritans: James Ussher and the Reformation of the Church, the house of Ussher is beginning to ascend to the heights of influence that it once had.

Although the book under review is written in a style that is accessible to the layperson, it is not simplistic. One comes away from it learning much about the religious and political situation in early modern Ireland. To further educate the reader, Gribben provides illustrations, mostly portraits of key figures as well as two delightful sketches by his wife Pauline whose background is in architecture. Gribben writes with an apparent sympathetic bent towards those who sought reform in seventeenth century Ireland, particularly the Puritans.

The Irish Puritans follows what one historian has called “horizontal history,” in that it looks not only at historical characters, but also at their social background. Thus, it is a work that is very much about the Irish reformation. Its opening chapter is a short history of the people and events that lead up to it. For instance, Gribben traces the differences between Ireland’s “native Irish,” “Old English” and “New English” populations; one cannot understand the scene on the ground in Ireland in the seventeenth century if these groups are not kept in mind. The reformation itself had a different flavour than the one in England. While the English reformation was as theological as it was political, in Ireland the basic difference between Protestants and Roman Catholics “was their response to Henry’s divorce, rather than biblical doctrine” (16). There was therefore a strong pragmatic element guiding the reformation’s early phase.

What frequently appears in Gribben’s book is the issue of English cultural encroachment, what is sometimes anachronistically called Anglicization. Instead of recognizing the value in meeting the Irish on their terms – using the Irish language rather than English to evangelise is but one example – England imposed its own political and religious agenda on Ireland. Gribben at times uses strong language to explain the situation: “In the institutions of its day, the Irish reformation was rooted in the betrayal of the Irish people as the English government thought that the demonstration of English culture was more important than the clear communication of the gospel” (17).

By and large the population of Ireland was steeped in a melding of Roman Catholic religion and pre-Christian paganism. The Irish were just as likely to go to Mass as they were to make pilgrimages to holy wells. When the reformation reached the shores of Ireland in the late sixteenth century it could only take hold by political force, relegating itself to English controlled districts like the Pale, a fortified area around Dublin.

Similar to the situation on the Continent, the Catholic Counter-Reformation was active in Ireland. Irish priests who had been trained in places like Lisbon, Paris and Rouen were “attempting to make Ireland’s reformation a battleground of academics” (21). In 1592 Trinity College Dublin was founded as a Puritan college that sought to provide preachers and theologians for the Church of Ireland. It was at Trinity that James Ussher first makes his appearance on the larger religious stage.

In the second chapter of the book, Gribben highlights the early life of Ussher paralleled with the story of the growth of the Irish reformation. Ussher was born on January 4, 1581 in Dublin. He came from a distinguished family that included Protestants and Roman Catholics on both sides, but was truly converted to Christ at ten years of age after having read Romans 12:1: “I beseech you therefore, brethren, by the mercies of God, that ye present your bodies a living sacrifice, holy, acceptable unto God, which is your reasonable service” (KJV).

Ussher received his M.A. from Trinity College in 1601 and it was at this time, in order to answer the claims of the Roman Catholics, that he took up an eighteen-year study of the church fathers. In 1607 he was awarded the B.D. and later in 1613 the D.D. Initially he taught at Trinity College and was its vice-chancellor, but by 1621 he was called to the bishopric of Meath and by 1625 he was made Archbishop of Armagh, primate of the Irish church. Gribben notes that Ussher’s fast rise in the church “was as much to do with his moderation as his brilliance” (28). Although Ussher was thrust into roles that required great administrative ability, his preference would have been the life of study. He made a regular habit of visiting England one summer out of every three to study and grow his collection of books, which numbered at ten thousand volumes and formed the basis of the Trinity College Dublin library.

The Irish Archbishop is well known for his chronology of the bible and his dating of the Creation at 4004 BC. Both of these works indicate that Ussher was a respected historian. Yet his historical ability stretches far beyond chronologies based upon biblical genealogy.  It should be this broader legacy for which modern Christianity should remember him.

The lack of gospel influence in Ireland was not due to any deficiency in doctrine. Gribben points to the publication of the Irish Articles (1615) as an example of the Church of Ireland’s theological influence. Grown out of dissatisfaction with the English Articles (1563) – commonly referred to as the Thirty-Nine Articles – the Irish Articles for a time became the doctrinal basis of the Church of Ireland. Consisting of one hundred and four statements, it leaned heavily on both the English and the Lambeth Articles (1595). It was strongly Calvinistic and demonstrated a high regard for the bible. Whether Ussher was the principle author or not, he was definitely a strong influence behind them. As a result, Ussher’s contemporaries saw him as having gone beyond the conciliatory tone of most in the Church of England: “in their eyes, he had become a ‘Puritan’” (39).

Gribben provides a very useful exposition of the Irish Articles (39-48) and reproduces them as an Appendix to the book. He notes certain confessional innovations of the Articles. For instance, they provided the most extensive discussion of God’s decree out of any Protestant confessions of faith published to that point, they were the first to set out the basics of covenant theology and they have the distinction of being the first to claim that the Pope was the Antichrist. Oddly enough, the Irish Articles are silent on issues of church government, which for a document of an episcopalian church is surprising. Gribben notes that this silence is due to the Irish Articles’ feature as a “statement of a missions agency” which the Church of Ireland essentially was (46). In terms of subscription, “Ministers who hoped to work with the Irish church were not required to agree to everything in its confession of faith – all what was required of them was a promise not to teach anything contrary to it” (47).

The sad fact of the Irish reformation was that its demise came not at the hands of Roman Catholicism, but as a result of English control. Ussher had a positive opinion of James I (1566-1625), who had abandoned his Presbyterianism for prelacy upon his ascendance to the English throne. However, Ussher had methodological differences with his king when it came to implementing reform. The desire of James and his bishops was the complete uniformity of ministers within the Church’s fold. Ussher, on the other hand, demonstrated such ecclesiastical flexibility that it was possible to be Presbyterian while holding office in the Church of Ireland. According to Gribben, the “royal programme of uniformity brought about the downfall of Ussher’s reformed church” (52). This in no small part was due to the distinctly Arminian flavour of James’ uniformity, seen clearly in the influence of the infamous Archbishop William Laud (1573-1645).

One of the positive moments in the history of Ireland came in the early 1630s with the revival that took place in Ulster known as the Six Mile Water Revival. Sparked by the preaching of men like John Ridge and John Livingstone, hundreds were swept up by the word of God and were converted. As with most surprising works of God, difficulties arose in the shape of counterfeit revivals as well as Roman Catholic opposition. Ultimately the revival died down and a time of persecution set in, namely at the hands of the Arminians who were in power. This brought about what Gribben calls “the collapse of Ussher’s Puritan church” (62).

By 1640, Ussher had left Ireland for good and remained in England for the rest of his life. While there he sought the life of quiet scholarship, but peace was interrupted by ecclesiastical conflicts. In order to pacify both the church hierarchy and those rattling for Presbyterianism, he drafted a work on what he called “limited episcopacy,” a proposal that was rejected by both sides (73).

Both Parliament and the royalists by and large viewed Ussher favourably. He had the freedom to move from London, a Parliamentary base, to Oxford where the king and his followers were stationed. As the Parliament gained control in the ensuing conflicts, the Arminian power base in the Church began to wane resulting in the trial and execution of key leaders including Laud, Wentworth and ultimately the king. The execution of Wentworth is one of the shining moments in Ussher’s personal history. Though he had been a thorn in Ussher’s side in Ireland, as Wentworth approached the block the Archbishop pastored him through the process of dying (74).

In 1641, Ireland saw some of its worst violence in the rebellion of Ulster Catholics, where much of Ussher’s property – including his library – was either confiscated or destroyed. The rebels were supported by the papacy and exacted vicious revenge on Protestants. Gribben provides the statistics and gruesome details of Protestant deaths as the rebellion spread throughout Ireland.

It was during this time England found itself embroiled in civil war and though Ussher had many friends on the side of Parliament, he sided with the king and joined him in Oxford. Oliver Cromwell (1599-1658), the leader of the New Model Army, fast became a central figure in the wars, experiencing many victories over the king’s army.

In Scotland, loyalties were divided, though eventually they sided with Parliament in the Solemn League and Covenant. In response, Parliament called together an Assembly of divines at Westminster to draft a series of documents that were to be the constitution of a new Presbyterian church in England. Ussher had a minor role to play in the events leading up to the Westminster Assembly (1643), but because of his views of the divine right of kings, he did not formally join the proceedings. Though he was absent in body, theologically his influence was felt in that the Assembly used the Irish Articles as a starting point for the Westminster Confession (86-87).

After a series of failed political maneuvers, that included an alliance with the Scots, Charles was formally beaten, tried and executed. Ussher watched from a distance as the regicide took place, fainting at the sight of it (90). In Ireland the reaction to the king’s death was similarly that of horror, as was the Scots who responded by declaring Charles II (1630-1685) as king. The Cromwellian republic was then faced with the possibility of a Puritan civil war.

With the death of his king now past, Ussher again sought a life of study. He spent much of his scholarly efforts on his chronology of the bible. In Ireland, things were not so calm. After an alliance between Presbyterians and Roman Catholics, instigated by the Duke of Ormand, Cromwell’s army invaded Ireland. Towns like Drogheda and Wexford saw very fierce fighting; to such a degree that Cromwell’s victory in Drogheda is still a bone of contention for Irish Catholics. Finally in Clonmel Cromwell was defeated after his troops were tricked into entering the well-armed city.

In the ensuing chaos, Ireland saw the rise of various sectarian groups, like the Fifth Monarchy men (103-104). Baptists and Independents were in positions of political leadership in Dublin and all around there were tensions amongst the Irish Puritans. Ussher, however, remained in England, now spending his time in Oxford, where John Owen (1616-1683) was in administrative leadership.

The death of Ireland’s Primate in 1656, according to Gribben, coincided with the demise of Irish Puritanism. As the Cromwellian government moved its support from the radical sects to the seemingly stable Presbyterians, divisions continued to spread. Finally, at the Restoration of the Monarchy in 1660, many of those who dissented from the Established church conformed. Ulster was the only province to continue with a Presbyterian heritage, but by and large, the Church of Ireland became the dominant ecclesial body (115).

Gribben’s concluding chapter quickly surveys the situation in Ireland since the Glorious Revolution (1688) brought the Dutch William of Orange (1650-1702) to the English throne. He notes the lack of toleration that Presbyterianism continued to experience in the years following, the impact of Enlightenment thought and the Evangelical revivals on the church and the 1798 rebellion that was again a collage of Roman Catholic and Presbyterian allegiance. He also explains the rise of Arianism amongst the Ulster Presbyterians and the efforts of Henry Cooke to assuage them, though there is no mention of Alexander Carson (1776-1844) who also combated Arianism before he left the Ulster Synod and became a Baptist. Gribben also notes the Ulster revival of 1859 and the growth of the Brethren, led by John Nelson Darby (1800-1892), the work of the twentieth century churchman T.C. Hammond (1877-1961), the modernism of J.E. Davey and the formation of the small Evangelical Presbyterian Church. Ireland’s embattled political situation is also mentioned as well as the slow growth of evangelicalism that has begun in recent years.

In this final chapter Gribben concludes with the question, “Why study James Ussher and the Irish Puritans?” His answer is so that Christians can learn lessons from past mistakes, particularly on the question of mission. It was the Irish reformation’s great failure to evangelise the native Irish in their own language, being mindful of their own culture. According to Gribben, “of all Europe, surely nowhere has been neglected to the same extent [missionally] as Ireland” (126). Gribben’s plea is that Ireland would no longer be forgotten and that missionaries would come and not make the same mistakes as those in the past. National flags, that Christians so often trip over (127), need to be put away so that the banner of the gospel may one day fly over the entirety of the Emerald Isle. As Gribben rightly says, “The Lord of the harvest will never forget those who sow in tears” (127).